Details about theorists: 1. Craik and Lockhart
(Woolfolk, p. 306)
Name of theory: Levels of Processing Theory
Description of theory: The determinant of how long information is remembered is directly related to how extensively the information is analysed and also connected to previous knowledge. This is maximized through assigning meaning to information rather than just trying to memorize it.
Link to the Wikipedia page-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect
This chart explains the level of processing theory in chart form, other than explanation form like in the book page 306
2. Allan Paivio (Woolfolk, p. 299) Name of theory: Dual-Coding Theory Description of theory: The information stored in long-term memory is stored either as visual, verbal, or both. This could be why explaining a new idea or concept is most effective if explained both in words and also visuals (a textbook that not only explains, but also has pictures or diagrams that provide alternate or additional information). Link to his Wikipedia page- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Paivio
3. Allen Baddeley and his colleagues: Courtney adds, they are "responsible for the model of working memory that is central to our current understanding of human cognition. On page 290 is a chart that is similar to the one below."
6. Gestalt Theorists
(Woolfolk, p. 286) Max Werheimer:https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Wertheimer
What is Gestalt? http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Gestalt_psychology.html
Courtney adds, "Gestalt principles are one explanation for how features are organized into patterns. In addition to noting features and using these Gestalt principles, to recognize patterns rapidly, we use what we already know about the situation, information about the context, and our knowledge of prototypes."
7. More names to note
Hermann Ebbinhaus: pioneer studying memory for verbal information over 100 years ago (p. 307).
Ashcraft & Radvansky (2010), p. R-2
Sternberg & Sternberg (2012)
Vernon Hall (p. 304)
Mayer (p. 304)
Erin McTigue (p. 305)
Bertgild & Renkl (p. 305)
William James (p. 310)- wrote about the limitations of rote learning
Howard Gardner (p. 310)- writes about the limitations of rote learning in reference to the inability to apply material in new settings. Can we use the information we obtain flexibly?
Wang, Thomas, & Ouellette (p. 310)- international contexts of rote learning
Gange (p. 311)- the text says, "automated basic skills and domain-specific strategies are learned in different ways" (p. 311).
Part One: Elements of the Cognitive Perspective
The cognitive view of learning is defined as a general approach that views learning as an active mental process to not only acquire, but also to remember and use knowledge. This is achieved through the "cognitive science" or study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge, creation, and the brain which helps us to understand how the brain and our memories hold information. Those who study the cognitive view of learning believe people actively chose what they take in mentally to enhance their personal knowledge. It has been studied that a brain learns not only from doing or completing an action, but also by watching another complete the action. This is called "mirror systems" and helps the brain to develop in two different ways. Knowledge in the brain is cumulative and also specifically engineered to one's personal experiences or educational upbringing. For example, an expert soccer player is going to know much more than a non-soccer player about the rules and components of the game, just as a rocket scientist is going to know very different information than a middle school English teacher. Knowledge is separated into general and specific. Domain-specific knowledge is useful in very particular situations (playing a soccer game or building a rocket for NASA) while general knowledge applies to many situations (knowing how to read or work a computer).
Part Two: Cognitive View of Memory
The main concept around the cognitive view on memory is trying to understand and establish how the brain processes information to take in, store, and use the information in future situations. On page 285 in the textbook figure 8.2 shows a very informative diagram of how it is believed the brain processes memories (figure 8.1 is outdated, but shown for comparison). Sensory memory is similar to the term "short-term" memory. Sensory memory is that of the five senses, sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste, and lasts very only a very brief 3-7 seconds. Perception is how one interprets his or her sensory information. There are several different ways to perceive information and three main types mentioned in the textbook are bottom-up processing (analyzing defining features and assembling them into a pattern), gestalt processing (seeing patterns in sensory information, chart on page 287), and top-down processing (using previous information to make sense of the new information). Attention is a big portion of acquiring new information. Attention is the focus designated to a stimuli, newer stimuli require more attention to correctly process while "automaticity" is being able to perform well-known tasks without much attention (ex: experienced drivers can drive, withhold a conversation, and maybe also listen to music all with minimal attention assigned to each activity). This goes into the idea of "multitasking" or doing several activities at once. Sequential multitasking is switching back and forth between several stimuli, while simultaneous multitasking is doing several things at once (the driving example would fit into the simultaneous category). Attention is important to remember as a teacher because it is imperative to find a way to hold the attention of all students, especially with a possible rise in ADD and ADHD in young people.
Working memory is the information being processed in the moment. Working memory is limited, imagine being in a lecture hall and trying to take notes as a professor quickly moves through information. It is difficult to hold and write down information and also listen to the new information as the professor speaks. Working memory is similar to short-term memory (component of memory that holds information for about 15-20 seconds). The working memory is composed of four main elements. The first, central executive, is responsible for monitoring and directing attention. The second, the phonological loop, holds verbal and spatial information for a short time (between 1-3 seconds). The third, the visiospatial sketchpad, is a holding system for both the visual and spatial stimuli. Finally, the fourth element, the episodic buffer, brings together the previous three elements to make sense of the information. Figure 8.4 on page 290 shows a clear diagram of how these elements work together.
The "cognitive load" refers to the amount of mental resources necessary to complete a task. Intrinsic cognitive load refers to how many resources are needed to process the information based on the information's complexity and one's previous knowledge or expertise about the information. Extraneous cognitive load is how the irrelevant stimuli is processed. Consider irrelevant stimuli as possible distractions (music or talking in the background) or irregularities (a poorly written textbook or an unclear lecture by a professor), the extraneous cognitive load helps to sort this information. The third is germane cognitive load which is the deep processing or the application of prior knowledge to a new task. Page 293 has a very clear table that explains these three more clearly. Retaining information is important and achieved through activation techniques such as maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, and chunking (see vocabulary for definitions). If information is not activated actively enough, it can be forgotten or it can decay.
Part Three: Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is the permanent store of knowledge in the brain and can be demoted into three pain categories; declarative, procedural, and self-regulatory knowledge. Declarative knowledge is "knowing that" something is true, this can be applied to specific facts, generalities, personal preferences, or rules. Procedural knowledge is "knowing how" to do a task and self-regulatory knowledge is knowing how to best manage one's own learning (page 297 has a chart with examples of each).
Semantic memory is that which has meaning (words, facts, theories, and concepts) and is stored as propositions, images, concepts, and schemas. Propositions are interconnected concepts and networks, images are the appearances of information (using your "mind's eye" is one example), concepts are a grouping mechanism to combine similar events, ideas, objects, or people, and schemas are another way to organize information (remember learning about Piaget's view on schema in chapter 2). Episodic memory is the counterbalance of semantic and is the long-term memory associated with memory of particular events or places in one's life. Implicit memory is a combination of classical conditioning (see chapter 7), procedural memory (memory of how to do things), and priming effects (the act of retrieving information from the long-term memory to apply to a current situation).
Storing and retrieving information is done through elaboration, organization, imagery, and context. Elaboration is adding new information to previous knowledge and combining the information to further knowledge. Organization is the grouping of information and concepts into understandable categories or a logical network of relations. Imagery is, as explained in the dual-coding theory, imperative in certain situations to maximize understanding. Providing images with words improves understanding and allows for the brain to better categorize the information. Context is the situation or emotional backdrop associated with an event. For example, taking a test in the same classroom as where the information was learned may help students better.
Description of concept: One of the most important tools in the learning process is using previous knowledge and information to build upon and better understand new information.
Concept Two: What is Working Memory?
Description of concept: Working memory is the combination of short-term storage in the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, and the processing in the episodic buffer. Using maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, one can keep information in the working memory for a longer period of time (20+ seconds). The working memory's limited capacity can be aided by chunking or the creation of schema.
Concept Three: Declarative, Procedural, and Self-regulatory Knowledge
Description of concept: Declarative knowledge is that of absolute truth whether in the form of fact, personal preference, generalities, or rules. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to complete a task and being able to demonstrate it fully. Self-Regulatory knowledge is knowing how best to learn and how to apply the previous two tactics to any situation.
Practical Applications: Idea One:
Teach students about mnemonics (memory tricks, basically) and how these techniques can improve their learning and testing. You can teach the loci method (associating information or items with a specific location) by teaching class outside or placing certain objects in specific parts of the classroom and explaining why they are there. Teach different acronyms (using the first letters of words to create a new phrase or word) to help them remember information. For example, many people in algebra were taught the order of operations using PEMDAS which depending on each teacher the letters had different meanings (I learned "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally"). This process is not only used in grade school, I am currently in astronomy and we have learned to classify star temperatures using the phrase OBAFGKM which looks like gibberish, but when a phrase ("Oh Boy, An 'F' Grade Kills Me") it can really help on a test. Chain mnemonics are very similar and a good example is remembering musical scales (Every Good Boy Does Fine; FACE). There are several more examples of mnemonic techniques on page 309 and they are included in the vocabulary. These memory tricks are helpful for any age group and any subject as long as explained thoroughly.
Idea Two:
Help students to understand how they personally learn best, be it lecture, group-work, personal note-taking, worksheets, etcetera. Explain to them this is Self-Regulatory knowledge (as explained above) and knowing how to learn will help them all throughout life when learning any new skill or process from physical activities to work-place procedures.
Licensure Exam (Connect and Extend to Praxis II): Connection One: Attention
What steps can a teacher take to gain and maintain student attention during instruction? (Add your answers by clicking here)
Connection Two: Memory and Instruction
To maximize the learning derived from instructional activities, a teacher should be aware of the characteristics of working memory. Consider the techniques or tactics a teacher can employ that complement those characteristics.
Connection Three: Teaching Concepts
Teachers devote much effort to the development of concepts that are vital in learning subject matter and skills. Understand the major approaches to teaching concepts and be able to describe their strengths and limitations.
Connection Four: Memory and Recall
Cognitivists emphasize the role that elaboration, organization, and context have in effective encoding of information into long-term memory. Be aware of techniques that make use of those processes.
Connection Five: Memory Strategies
Medical students often use mnemonics to remember the vast amounts of information they encounter in their studies. Be familiar with the major mnemonic methods and the kinds of information that they are most suitable for.
Connection Six: Developing Basic Skills
Efficient and effective performance as a learner requires the automatic use of basic skills. Describe what teachers can do to help students develop basic skills.
Application One:
Several prominent philosophers in history have done a lot of work with the brain, its functions, and how it determines or alters our behaviors. Try to look at how famous psychologists such as Freud, Skinner, Maslow, Locke, Vygotsky, Pavlov, Piaget, and any other big names would observe the brain and how it forms memories. Some like Freud might have very opinionated views on which memories last the longest in the brain and why that might be.
Application Two:
The brain obviously controls the entire body and its functions, therefore it is widely studied in the medical field. It would be interesting to look back through history and see how the development of information about the brain came to be. For example, on page 285 in the textbook there are two separate charts explaining how information is processed in the brain. The first diagram is outdated because more was learned about the systems of the brain and so the second chart shows the revised information.
Gestalt Articles:
Saygılı, G. (2013). Analysis of Teachers' Views on The Configuration of First Reading and Writing Process with Games. European Journal Of Contemporary Education, 9(6), 235-248.
Kate Adams
Chapter Outline
Key Terms
http://quizlet.com/35185927/educational-psychology-chapter-8-vocabulary-flash-cards/http://quizlet.com/39806894/educational-psychology-chapter-eight-flash-cards/
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Key Theorists
1. Craik and Lockhart2. Allan Paivio
3. Allen Baddeley and his colleagues:
4. Jacob Feldman
5. Greek Philosophers
Aristotle: https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Aristotle
Plato: https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Plato
6. Gestalt Theorists
Max Werheimer: https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Wertheimer
Details about theorists:
1. Craik and Lockhart
(Woolfolk, p. 306)
Name of theory: Levels of Processing Theory
Description of theory: The determinant of how long information is remembered is directly related to how extensively the information is analysed and also connected to previous knowledge. This is maximized through assigning meaning to information rather than just trying to memorize it.
Link to the Wikipedia page-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect
This chart explains the level of processing theory in chart form, other than explanation form like in the book page 306
2. Allan Paivio
(Woolfolk, p. 299)
Name of theory: Dual-Coding Theory
Description of theory: The information stored in long-term memory is stored either as visual, verbal, or both. This could be why explaining a new idea or concept is most effective if explained both in words and also visuals (a textbook that not only explains, but also has pictures or diagrams that provide alternate or additional information).
Link to his Wikipedia page- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Paivio
3. Allen Baddeley and his colleagues:
Courtney adds, they are "responsible for the model of working memory that is central to our current understanding of human cognition. On page 290 is a chart that is similar to the one below."
Image Retrieved from http://mattreed1.wordpress.com/2012/09/29/9/
4. Jacob Feldman
See p. 300 on the simplicity principle.
5. Greek Philosophers
Cogntive perspective is both the oldest and youngest member of the psychological community (p. 282).
Aristotle: https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Aristotle
Plato: https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Plato
6. Gestalt Theorists
(Woolfolk, p. 286)
Max Werheimer: https://poots14.wikispaces.com/Wertheimer
What is Gestalt? http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Gestalt_psychology.html
Courtney adds, "Gestalt principles are one explanation for how features are organized into patterns. In addition to noting features and using these Gestalt principles, to recognize patterns rapidly, we use what we already know about the situation, information about the context, and our knowledge of prototypes."
Image retrieved from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Gestalt_Principles_Composition.jpg
7. More names to note
Hermann Ebbinhaus: pioneer studying memory for verbal information over 100 years ago (p. 307).
Ashcraft & Radvansky (2010), p. R-2
Sternberg & Sternberg (2012)
Vernon Hall (p. 304)
Mayer (p. 304)
Erin McTigue (p. 305)
Bertgild & Renkl (p. 305)
William James (p. 310)- wrote about the limitations of rote learning
Howard Gardner (p. 310)- writes about the limitations of rote learning in reference to the inability to apply material in new settings. Can we use the information we obtain flexibly?
Wang, Thomas, & Ouellette (p. 310)- international contexts of rote learning
Gange (p. 311)- the text says, "automated basic skills and domain-specific strategies are learned in different ways" (p. 311).
(back to top)
Summary of Chapter
Part One: Elements of the Cognitive PerspectiveThe cognitive view of learning is defined as a general approach that views learning as an active mental process to not only acquire, but also to remember and use knowledge. This is achieved through the "cognitive science" or study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge, creation, and the brain which helps us to understand how the brain and our memories hold information. Those who study the cognitive view of learning believe people actively chose what they take in mentally to enhance their personal knowledge. It has been studied that a brain learns not only from doing or completing an action, but also by watching another complete the action. This is called "mirror systems" and helps the brain to develop in two different ways. Knowledge in the brain is cumulative and also specifically engineered to one's personal experiences or educational upbringing. For example, an expert soccer player is going to know much more than a non-soccer player about the rules and components of the game, just as a rocket scientist is going to know very different information than a middle school English teacher. Knowledge is separated into general and specific. Domain-specific knowledge is useful in very particular situations (playing a soccer game or building a rocket for NASA) while general knowledge applies to many situations (knowing how to read or work a computer).
Part Two: Cognitive View of Memory
The main concept around the cognitive view on memory is trying to understand and establish how the brain processes information to take in, store, and use the information in future situations. On page 285 in the textbook figure 8.2 shows a very informative diagram of how it is believed the brain processes memories (figure 8.1 is outdated, but shown for comparison). Sensory memory is similar to the term "short-term" memory. Sensory memory is that of the five senses, sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste, and lasts very only a very brief 3-7 seconds. Perception is how one interprets his or her sensory information. There are several different ways to perceive information and three main types mentioned in the textbook are bottom-up processing (analyzing defining features and assembling them into a pattern), gestalt processing (seeing patterns in sensory information, chart on page 287), and top-down processing (using previous information to make sense of the new information). Attention is a big portion of acquiring new information. Attention is the focus designated to a stimuli, newer stimuli require more attention to correctly process while "automaticity" is being able to perform well-known tasks without much attention (ex: experienced drivers can drive, withhold a conversation, and maybe also listen to music all with minimal attention assigned to each activity). This goes into the idea of "multitasking" or doing several activities at once. Sequential multitasking is switching back and forth between several stimuli, while simultaneous multitasking is doing several things at once (the driving example would fit into the simultaneous category). Attention is important to remember as a teacher because it is imperative to find a way to hold the attention of all students, especially with a possible rise in ADD and ADHD in young people.
Working memory is the information being processed in the moment. Working memory is limited, imagine being in a lecture hall and trying to take notes as a professor quickly moves through information. It is difficult to hold and write down information and also listen to the new information as the professor speaks. Working memory is similar to short-term memory (component of memory that holds information for about 15-20 seconds). The working memory is composed of four main elements. The first, central executive, is responsible for monitoring and directing attention. The second, the phonological loop, holds verbal and spatial information for a short time (between 1-3 seconds). The third, the visiospatial sketchpad, is a holding system for both the visual and spatial stimuli. Finally, the fourth element, the episodic buffer, brings together the previous three elements to make sense of the information. Figure 8.4 on page 290 shows a clear diagram of how these elements work together.
The "cognitive load" refers to the amount of mental resources necessary to complete a task. Intrinsic cognitive load refers to how many resources are needed to process the information based on the information's complexity and one's previous knowledge or expertise about the information. Extraneous cognitive load is how the irrelevant stimuli is processed. Consider irrelevant stimuli as possible distractions (music or talking in the background) or irregularities (a poorly written textbook or an unclear lecture by a professor), the extraneous cognitive load helps to sort this information. The third is germane cognitive load which is the deep processing or the application of prior knowledge to a new task. Page 293 has a very clear table that explains these three more clearly. Retaining information is important and achieved through activation techniques such as maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, and chunking (see vocabulary for definitions). If information is not activated actively enough, it can be forgotten or it can decay.
Part Three: Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is the permanent store of knowledge in the brain and can be demoted into three pain categories; declarative, procedural, and self-regulatory knowledge. Declarative knowledge is "knowing that" something is true, this can be applied to specific facts, generalities, personal preferences, or rules. Procedural knowledge is "knowing how" to do a task and self-regulatory knowledge is knowing how to best manage one's own learning (page 297 has a chart with examples of each).
Semantic memory is that which has meaning (words, facts, theories, and concepts) and is stored as propositions, images, concepts, and schemas. Propositions are interconnected concepts and networks, images are the appearances of information (using your "mind's eye" is one example), concepts are a grouping mechanism to combine similar events, ideas, objects, or people, and schemas are another way to organize information (remember learning about Piaget's view on schema in chapter 2). Episodic memory is the counterbalance of semantic and is the long-term memory associated with memory of particular events or places in one's life. Implicit memory is a combination of classical conditioning (see chapter 7), procedural memory (memory of how to do things), and priming effects (the act of retrieving information from the long-term memory to apply to a current situation).
Storing and retrieving information is done through elaboration, organization, imagery, and context. Elaboration is adding new information to previous knowledge and combining the information to further knowledge. Organization is the grouping of information and concepts into understandable categories or a logical network of relations. Imagery is, as explained in the dual-coding theory, imperative in certain situations to maximize understanding. Providing images with words improves understanding and allows for the brain to better categorize the information. Context is the situation or emotional backdrop associated with an event. For example, taking a test in the same classroom as where the information was learned may help students better.
(back to top)
Key Concepts
Concept One: How Does Knowledge Affect Learning?
Description of concept: One of the most important tools in the learning process is using previous knowledge and information to build upon and better understand new information.Concept Two: What is Working Memory?
Description of concept: Working memory is the combination of short-term storage in the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, and the processing in the episodic buffer. Using maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, one can keep information in the working memory for a longer period of time (20+ seconds). The working memory's limited capacity can be aided by chunking or the creation of schema.
Concept Three: Declarative, Procedural, and Self-regulatory Knowledge
Description of concept: Declarative knowledge is that of absolute truth whether in the form of fact, personal preference, generalities, or rules. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to complete a task and being able to demonstrate it fully. Self-Regulatory knowledge is knowing how best to learn and how to apply the previous two tactics to any situation.
(back to top)
Application for Teachers
Practical Applications:Idea One:
Teach students about mnemonics (memory tricks, basically) and how these techniques can improve their learning and testing. You can teach the loci method (associating information or items with a specific location) by teaching class outside or placing certain objects in specific parts of the classroom and explaining why they are there. Teach different acronyms (using the first letters of words to create a new phrase or word) to help them remember information. For example, many people in algebra were taught the order of operations using PEMDAS which depending on each teacher the letters had different meanings (I learned "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally"). This process is not only used in grade school, I am currently in astronomy and we have learned to classify star temperatures using the phrase OBAFGKM which looks like gibberish, but when a phrase ("Oh Boy, An 'F' Grade Kills Me") it can really help on a test. Chain mnemonics are very similar and a good example is remembering musical scales (Every Good Boy Does Fine; FACE). There are several more examples of mnemonic techniques on page 309 and they are included in the vocabulary. These memory tricks are helpful for any age group and any subject as long as explained thoroughly.
Idea Two:
Help students to understand how they personally learn best, be it lecture, group-work, personal note-taking, worksheets, etcetera. Explain to them this is Self-Regulatory knowledge (as explained above) and knowing how to learn will help them all throughout life when learning any new skill or process from physical activities to work-place procedures.
Licensure Exam (Connect and Extend to Praxis II):
Connection One: Attention
What steps can a teacher take to gain and maintain student attention during instruction?
(Add your answers by clicking here)
Connection Two: Memory and Instruction
To maximize the learning derived from instructional activities, a teacher should be aware of the characteristics of working memory. Consider the techniques or tactics a teacher can employ that complement those characteristics.
Connection Three: Teaching Concepts
Teachers devote much effort to the development of concepts that are vital in learning subject matter and skills. Understand the major approaches to teaching concepts and be able to describe their strengths and limitations.
Connection Four: Memory and Recall
Cognitivists emphasize the role that elaboration, organization, and context have in effective encoding of information into long-term memory. Be aware of techniques that make use of those processes.
Connection Five: Memory Strategies
Medical students often use mnemonics to remember the vast amounts of information they encounter in their studies. Be familiar with the major mnemonic methods and the kinds of information that they are most suitable for.
Connection Six: Developing Basic Skills
Efficient and effective performance as a learner requires the automatic use of basic skills. Describe what teachers can do to help students develop basic skills.
(back to top)
Applications for Content
Application One:Several prominent philosophers in history have done a lot of work with the brain, its functions, and how it determines or alters our behaviors. Try to look at how famous psychologists such as Freud, Skinner, Maslow, Locke, Vygotsky, Pavlov, Piaget, and any other big names would observe the brain and how it forms memories. Some like Freud might have very opinionated views on which memories last the longest in the brain and why that might be.
Application Two:
The brain obviously controls the entire body and its functions, therefore it is widely studied in the medical field. It would be interesting to look back through history and see how the development of information about the brain came to be. For example, on page 285 in the textbook there are two separate charts explaining how information is processed in the brain. The first diagram is outdated because more was learned about the systems of the brain and so the second chart shows the revised information.
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Multimedia Learning Material
Overview of items:Details of audiovisual material:
[insert items/files]
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POOT Forums
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Test Your Knowledge
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Teacher Resources
Memory: A Five-Day Unit Lesson Plan for High School Psychology TeachersGestalt Articles:
Saygılı, G. (2013). Analysis of Teachers' Views on The Configuration of First Reading and Writing Process with Games. European Journal Of Contemporary Education, 9(6), 235-248.
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Top-Rated Student Generated Files
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http://quizlet.com/39806894/educational-psychology-chapter-eight-flash-cards/§Two psychologists who devised the levels of processing effect theory. Link to the Wikipedia page-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect